Pg
126-131 World History Book
-Italian
peninsula easier to unify than Greece (no small, isolated valleys); Apennine
Mountains less rugged than mountains in Greece; broad, fertile plains in north
and west
-Ancestors
of Romans-
-Latins, settled along Tiber River in
seven villages along seven hills which would grow into Rome
-Etruscans also lived on Italian peninsula
-Romans adapted Etruscan alphabet,
learned to use arch in building, learned to drain marshes along Tiber
-509
B.C.- Romans drove out Etruscans ruler
-set up republic ("the thing of the
people") with senate made up of 300 patricians
(members of landholding upper class)
-two consuls elected annually to supervise government and command armies
-during war, senate chose a dictator
(ruler with complete control of government)
-Cincinnatus-
model dictator who defeated army and returned to farm in sixteen days
-plebeians- farmers, merchants, artisans, traders who made up bulk of
population
-had little influence
-laws
of the Twelve Tables (laws inscribed on 12 tablets and set up in Forum, or
marketplace) allowed plebeians to appeals a judgment by patrician judge
-tribunes eventually elected
by plebeians to protect their interests
-had power to veto harmful laws-
finally, plebeians were chosen as consuls and senate was open to plebeians
-Roman
society-
-family was basic unit
-male head of household had absolute power; wife subject to his authority
-woman later ran businesses, supported arts, but most raised families
-patrician women often went out with husbands
-Livia and Agrippina the Younger had
significant political influence as women
-girls and boys of high and low classes learned to read
-Roman gods and goddesses similar to Etruscans' and Greeks'
-many feasts and celebrations and temples to gods
-expansion
into Italy-
-basic military unit was a legion
of about 5,000 men
-fought without pay with own weapons
-rewards mixed with harsh punishment
-conquered people were generally treated
well; had to pay Roman taxes, acknowledge leadership, and supply soldiers but
could keep way of life
-trade/travel increased
Pg
89-92 Humanities Book
-The
Importance of Rome-
-road network
-Julian calendar
-Greek art spread by Romans
-Christianity spread by Roman empire
-tuba invented by Romans
-two
periods of Rome- Republican and Imperial
-Etruscans
of Tuscany greatly influenced Romans
-Etruscan art was less interested in
intellectual problems of proportion or understanding how human body works than
in producing immediate impact on viewer
-Etruscan engineers introduced Roman toga, chariot racing, and public
games
-under Etruscans, Romans were in contact with larger world
-rise of Romans signaled decline of Etruscans
Pg
132-136 World History Book
-Carthage-
an empire settled by North Africans and Phoecian traders, ruled over North
African to western Mediterranean
-Romans fought three wars with Carthage called the PUNIC
WARS (punicus- "Phoecian")
1st Punic War | 2nd Punic War | 3rd Punic War |
-Rome defeated Carthage, won Sicily, | -Carthaginian general named Hannibal led army on march across Pyrenees and over alps; -Hannibal failed to capute Rome -Romans sent army to Carthage and Hannibal -Carthage gave up all land except in Africa -Rome still saw Carthage as a rival | -Rome completely destroyed Carthage -survivors killed/sold -salt sprinkled over land |
-Romans
committed to imperialism
(establishing control over foreign lands and peoples)
-attacked and expanded into Eastern Mediterranean
-Macedonia, Greece, parts of Asia Minor surrendered and became Roman
provinces
-Egypt allied with Rome
-Romans called Mediterranean Mare
Nostrum ("our Sea")
-control/conquestàtrade,
riches
-
-new wealthy class with huge estates called latifundia
-latifundia used slaves and produced cheap food, which hurt small farmers
-huge amounts of imported grain hurt
small farmers, who fell into debt and developed into class of unemployed people
-rich became richer, poor became poorer
-attempts
at reform-
-Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus (tribunes)
-Tiberius Gracchus- tribune, distributed land to poor farmers
-Gaius Gracchus- wanted to use public funds to buy food for poor
-Tiberius and Gaius angered senate and were killed
-decline
of the Republic-
-civil wars occurred between senate and popular political leaders
-legions became more loyal to commander than state
-Caesar (with Pompey) dominated politics
-took over Gaul (present-day France)
-Pompey convinced Senate to order Caesar
back and disband army but Caesar defied and crossed Rubicon River with army to
crush rebellions all over Mediterranean
-returned to Rome, forced Senate to make him dictator for life
-launched program to employ jobless, gave public land to poor
-recognized government of provinces, gave Roman citizens more rights
-assassinated by Senate
-Mark Antony fought with Octavian for power after Caesar
-Roman
Empire and Roman Peace
-Octavian- title Augustus
("Exalted One")
-became princeps (first
citizen) with absolute power
-created stable government
-efficient civil service to enforce laws established
-all high-level jobs open to talent regardless of class
-cemented allegiances with cities and provinces by allowing
self-government
-tax system and census developed
-put jobless people to work (building roads, temples, farming land)
-Caligula- insane emperor
-named hose first consul
-Nero- insane
-persecuted Christians, set fire that destroyed most of Rome
-Hadrian-
-codified Roman law (made it same for all provinces)
-built wall across Britain to prevent attacks from non-Roman north
-Marcus Aurelius- read philosophy, close to Plato's ideal of
philosopher-king
-wrote Mediations
-Pax
Romana- rule of emperors between Augustus and Marcus Aurelius in which Roman
rule brought peace, unity
-maintained roads, legions
-free trade
-people moved freely
-bread
and circuses developed
-Circus Maximus- Rome's biggest racecourse
-gladiator contests
-slaves trained to fight
-paid for by taxes
-provided grain to feed poor
Pg
96-98 Humanities Book
-Roman
Law and Philosophy-
-Romans had practical nature- suspicious
of professional philosophers
-two principal schools of philosophy
developed from Greece
1. Epicureanism-
-supported by poet Lucretius, who wrote a poem called On the Nature of Things (De
Rerum Natura)
-founded by Epicurus; correct goal and principle of human actions is
pleasure
-stresses moderation and prudence
-thought of by Romans as Greek debauchery (excessive indulgence)
-gods play no part in human affairs or nature (no divine retribution)
-world made of two elements- atoms
and empty space
-atoms randomly swerve in space
-humans are free- no interference from gods
-death- atoms of body separate- body, mind, soul lost
-offers no punishment, just loss of sensation
2. Stoicism-
-world governed by Reason, divine
Providence watched over virtuous, never allowing them to suffer evil
-key to virtue- desire only that which is under one's control
-Seneca wrote several essays
on Stoic morality
-Nero (his pupil) ordered him to commit suicide, which is sanctioned by
Stoics
-Epictetus- wrote Echiridion
-former slave who established schools in Rome and Greece
-absolute trust in Divine Providence
-though that philosopher was spokesman of Providence
-Marcus Aurelius- Stoic
-duty vs. personal convictions (being Stoic vs. emperor)
-both Stoicism and Epicureanism combated
Roman superstition and failed
-law-
-Caesar
created unified code of civil law, the IUS
CIVILE because legislation contradictory and confusing Byzantine emperor
Justinian finalized laws
-science
of law- original creation of Roman literature
-earliest legal code- Law of the Twelve Tables
-jurisprudence- "science of law"
-Roman law international
-legal experts in great demand at Rome
-at heart of Roman law- equity, equality for all
Pg
98-99, 108-112 Humanities Book
-late
Republic- Greek styles into new Roman forms
-individuals such as Cicero and Caesar dominated politics and were
captured in portrait busts
-realistic psychologically revealing
sculptures based on Etruscan models rather than Hellenistic portraits which were
idealized
-portraiture- Roman art at most creative and sensitive
-new expressive possibilities
-discovered how to use physical
appearance to convey character; manipulated by statesmen and politicians as
propaganda
-architecture used to express authority
-Roman
Imperial Architecture-
-grandeur of imperial Rome- public buildings and private houses
constructed in huge numbers
-arch- borrowed from Etruscans- commemorated victories
-original arches were temporary and
wooden, erected to celebrate return to the capital of a victorious general
-internal arches and vaults-
helped provide roofs for bigger, more complex structures
-invention of concrete and understanding of stress and counterstress helped
architects experiment with elaborate new forms
-barrel vaults and domes
passed into Western architecture
-Romans used stone arches for bridges and aqueducts
-vaults of a small size used for domestic buildings
-barrel vaults in semi-cylindrical shape could intersect roof of a large
area
-domes popular in building public baths
-inside and outside surface covered in marble to hide structural supports
-much work destroyed when Barbarians
invaded and during the Renaissance by builders removing bricks or marble
-Pantheon
preserved-
-built during reign of Hadrian
-portico supported by Corinthian columns; leads to central rotunda with huge concrete dome
and wall with series of niches
-light source through oculus
at the top of the dome
-proportions carefully calculated
-imperial
fora built, formed vast architectural design
-baths, theaters, temples, racetracks, libraries in city
-builders experimented with new techniques
-entire Roman Empire erected according to same basic designs
-aqueduct
system impressive- network of pipes brought millions of gallons of water a day
to Rome
-system of covered street drains built,
eliminating previous open sewers (open drains returned in Medieval times when
many Roman engineering skills lost)
-most aqueducts have collapsed but
elsewhere in Roman Empire, example have survived (ex. The Pont du Gard in France)
-imperial Rome overcrowded; average
Roman lived in apartment block called and insula,
most of which have long since disappeared
-Juvenal- satirist, served as magistrate and irritated emperor
-returned to Rome after period of exile
Pg
141-146 World History Book
-many
religions in Rome- people could worship as they pleased if they also honored
Roman gods and acknowledged divine spirit of emperor
-many
worshiped mystery religions like Cult of
Isis or Mithraism
-Romans
conquered Judea where Jews lived and excused Jews from worshipping Roman gods
because Jews monotheistic
-divisions among Jews- during
Hellenistic Age, Jews absorbed Greek ideas but concerned about weakening of
religion, Jewish conservatives rejected influences
-most Jews willing to live under Roman
rule but zealots were not- called for
revolt and independent state
-Jews rebelled, Romans captured Jerusalem and destroyed temple
-Jews rebelled again a century later and Romans leveled Jerusalem- many
Jews left Judea
-Jesus
and his message-
-Christianity rose with Jew named Jesus
-knowledge about Jesus comes from Gospels
-Jesus born about 4 BC near Jerusalem in Bethlehem
-descendant of King David of Israel
-grew up in Nazareth, worshiped god, followed Jewish law
-at 30, recruited apostles- used parables to communicate ideas
-went to Jerusalem with disciples to spread message
-teaching rooted in Jewish tradition-
belief in one God, Ten Commandments, laws of Moses, defended teachings of Jewish
prophets
-new beliefs0 he was Son of God,
mission- spiritual salvation and eternal life to anyone who believed in him
-preached forgiveness, justice,
morality, love of God
-Romans thought he would lead rebellions
-Spread
of Christianity
-disciples preached first among Jews of Judea, then in Jewish communities
throughout Roman world
-Peter established Christianity in Rome
-Paul played role in spread
-spread teachings of Jesus to non-Jews or gentiles
-traveled around Mediterranean and set up churches
-Christians
persecuted because they didn't make sacrifices to honor emperor or honor Roman
gods
-emperors
like Nero used them as scapegoats
-thousands of Christian martyrs
-Christianity
still spread because Jesus welcomed all- and many found comfort in message of
love
-missionaries added ideas from Plato,
stoic, and other Greeks to Jesus' message; educated Romans attracted to
religions
-unity of Roman Empire made spread
easier- roads, languages united
-many impressed by strength of
Christians' belief
-persecution
ended in 313AD when Constantine
issued Edict of Milan which granted
freedom of worship to all
-Theodosius
made Christianity official religion 80 years later
-Early
Christian Church-
-a
person fully joined Christian community by baptism
-Christians
all equal, ate together each Sunday In Eucharist
in memory of Jesus
-men
only in clergy- each community had priest who was under authority of bishop (a
church official responsible for all Christians in an area called a diocese)
-bishops in important cities gained title of patriarch
-all patriarchs in Eastern empire (except Rome)
-divisions
because of rivalry among patriarchs
-in western Rome, bishops known as Popes
-work
on Judeo-Christian theology
-Clement- early Christian theologist in Alexandria
-Origen- lived in Alexandria, wrote Greek, respected for intellectual
achievements
-Augustine- greatest of early Christian scholars, bishops of Hippo
Pg
100-102 Humanities Book
-Augustan
Literature
-Augustus encouraged writers and artists- art reflected his politics
-from time of Augustus, art at Rome largely official (commissioned by
state to serve state purposes)
-Vergil- greatest of all Roman poets
-wrote ten pastoral poems known as the Ecologues
-deals with joys and sorrows of country and shepherds and herdsmen
-Georgics-
four books, practical guide for farming
-devoted last 10 years of life to epic
poem to honor Augustus called Aeneid
and left unfinished
-Aenid divided into twelve books
-Trojan prince Aeneas flees from ruins
of Troy to found new city in Italy- he lands in Carthage and falls in love with
Queen Dido. Who kills herself after Mercury reminds him of his mission
-Aeneas goes to Italy, then to the
underworld to seek guidance from father and transforms into "man of
destiny"
-Trojans arrive at river Tiber, Aeneas
visits while Halians resist Trojan invaders—losses on both sides, Aeneas wins
-theme: life essentially tragic, mood-
regret for sadness in lives
Pg
147-151 World History Book
-after
death of Marcus Aurelius, Pax Romana ended and political/economic turmoil
occurred
-struggles for power emerged; emperors overthrown
-social and economic problems
-high taxes placed burdens on business people and small farmers
-farmland being over-cultivated->loss of productivity
-tenant farming
-Emperor
Diocletian tried to restore order
-divided into two parts- kept eastern part, appointed co-emperors to rule
western
-tried to increase prestige of emperor
-fixed prices to slow inflation
-laws forced farmers to stay on land
-sons required to follow fathers' occupation
-Constantine-
continued Diocletian's reforms and took two steps:
1. toleration of Christians
2. built Constantinople
-foreign
invasions
-when
Romans as powerful, legions on frontiers held back Germanic invaders; some
Germanic peoples along borders learned Roman ways and became allies
-wars
in East Asia sent Huns across central Asia
-dislodged Germanic peoples in path
-Visigoths, Ostrogoths, etc. fled to Rome seeking safety
-Visigoth general Alaric overran Italy, plundered Rome; Wandals moved though Gauls and
Spain into North Africa
-Hun leader Attila went on savage campaign of conquest across Europe
-called "scourge of god" by Christians
-Attila died, empire collapsed soon after
-476- fall of Rome, Odoacer
(Germanic leader) ousted emperor
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