Pg 234-239 World History
-
even as
western Roman Empire fell, east flourished with Byzantium (rebuilt as Constantinople)
as its capital
o
Constantinople
on shores of Bosporus, had harbor, guarded on three sides by water
o
Commanded
trade routes linking Europe and Asia (silk important)
o
Has church of
Hagia Sophia, rebuilt by emperor Justinian in six years after revolt
destroyed original
-
Byzantine
empire reached greatest size under Emperor Justinian
o
Determined to
revive ancient Rome by recovering provinces overrun by invaders- led by general Belisarius
o
To restore
Roman glory, he launched program to beautify Constantinople- great triumph was Hagia
Sophia ("Holy Wisdom")
o
Reformed law-
he commissioned the collecting revising, and reorganizing of all laws of ancient
Rome, produced Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law") aka Justinian's
code
o
Ruled as autocrat
(sole ruler with complete authority), deemed Christ's co-ruler on earth,
combined political power and spiritual authority; aided by wife Theodora
o
Byzantine
empire strong because of strong government and prosperous economy
§
Peasants
backbone of economy
§
Bezant (Byzantine coin) flourished
Byzantine Christianity
-
Byzantine
emperor appointed patriarch in Constantinople and rejected pope's claim
to authority over all Christians
-
Byzantine
clergy could marry, chief Byzantine holiday was Easter (instead of Christmas
like in Western Europe), dispute over use of icons (holy images)
contributed to split because Byzantine emperor outlawed veneration of icons and
pope took hand in dispute—led to schism between Byzantine (Eastern
Orthodox) and Roman Catholic churches
Crisis and Collapse
-
by time of
schism, Byzantine empire declining; Seljuks advanced across Asia Minor
o
Byzantine
emperor called for western help to fight Seljuks (who has closed pilgrimage
routes to Jerusalem and previously caused Crusades) but trade rivalry sparked
violence between Byzantine empire and Venice, resulting in attack on
Constantinople, burning and plundering city; Byzantine emperor regained capital
but empire never recovered
o
1453- Ottoman Turks besieged Constantinople for two
months and broke city walls; led by Muhammad II, city was renamed Istanbul
and became capital of Ottoman empire
Byzantine Heritage
-
Byzantines
built on Hellenistic culture, blended Christian religion with Greek science,
philosophy, arts, literature
-
Icons used to
evoke presence of God, mosaics brought scenes of bible to life
-
Byzantine
architecture blended Greek, Persian, and Roman styles
-
Procopius- historian
o
Wrote Secret
History criticizing Justinian and Theodora
o
Advisor to
general Belisarius
-
Anna
Comnena- historian
o
Wrote Alexiad
analyzing reign of her father (Alexius I)
Pg 157-160 Humanities Reading- Byzantium
The Decline of Rome
-
severe
economic, political, social problems in Roman empire by 4th century-
fall of Western Roman Empire 476AD
-
Constantine
dedicated eastern trading town named Byzantium as new capital of eastern
empire, renamed it Constantinople
-
Advantages:
o
Straddled
most prominent land route between Asia and Europe
o
Had deepwater
port with natural shelter
o
Guarded
passage between Mediterranean and Black Sea
o
Surrounding
countryside rich in forest and water
o
Neighboring
areas of Europe (Thrace) and Asia (Bithynia) were rich in
agricultural areas that could supply city
-
Emperor
Honarius moved
capital of western Empire to Ravenna (which fell 74 years later)
-
Two writers
who saw decline of empire: Augustine in Roman North Africa and Boethius
in Ravenna
Literature and Philosophy
Augustine of Hippo
-
born 354AD in
North Africa, received Classical education in Rome, converted to Christianity,
named Bishop of Hippo
-
after
Visigoths sacked Rome, pagans and many others blamed Christians; Augustine wrote
The City of God
in attempt to demonstrate history had direction willed by God and
"in the end" all would be made write in city of God
o
one of most
influential philosophies of Western world
o
until Thomas
Aquinas in 13th century, all Christian theologies started from
explicitly Augustan premises (Thomas Aquinas replaced Augustine's strong
Platonic orientation with Aristotelian one)
o
emphasized
absolute majesty of God, immutability of flawed state of human condition
(notions derived from Paul)
o
attempted to
formulate coherent and all-embracing philosophy of history; linear time in
direction from origin in God until it ends in God at consummation of history in Last
Judgment
§
rejected
pagan notion that history repeats itself in endless cycles
§
convinced
that humanity has origin and would terminate
§
"bright
future", "atomic wasteland of the future", and "classless
society" echo worldview of Augustine
-
invented
genre of self-reflective writing in West; before Augustine's time, memoirs
related life in term of social, political, or military affairs (ex. Caesar's Gallic
Wars); Augustine's self-scrutiny and inquiry into significance of life new
to Western culture
o
wrote Confessions,
his analysis of spiritual and intellectual development from youth to time of
conversion to Christianity; title represents confession of sin, an act of
faith in God, and confession of praise
§
no other work
like Confessions until Petrarch's Letter
to Posterity (Renaissance writers were students of Augustine)
§
strongly
autobiographical; long mediation by Augustine on hidden grace of God as his life
shaped toward appointed end; 'confesses' to God (and reader) parts pf life
making up seamless web of circumstance
§
said to be
the beginning of autobiography
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius
-
highly
educated, entered service of goth king Theodoric, imprisoned in city of
Pava for reasons not clear, wrote treatise called The
Consolation of Philosophy while awaiting execution
o
cast dialogue
between Lady Philosophy and author on philosophical and religious basis for
human freedom
o
Lady
Philosophy demands author avoid self-pity, face troubles with serenity/hope
o
Insists
provident God overcomes all evil, insists blind fate has no control over
humanity (human freedom exists along with all-knowing God and that God will
triumph)
o
Christian
themes permeate work (no explicit mention of Christian doctrine)
o
One of last
works of late Roman period- reflects elegance of Roman expression, burgeoning
hope of Christianity, and sadness at Roman decline
o
Boethius
asks: If God knows what we do before we do it, how can we be said to be free
agents who must accept responsibility for personal acts?
§
Answer: God
lives in eternity, which is not "long time" but actually "no
time"; God lives in eternal moment that for him if "now"; God
does not exercise praevidentia (seeing things before they happen) but providence
(seeing all things simultaneously before they happen)
§
People do act
with freedom and are not in hands of indifferent fate; ultimate meaning of life
rests with presence of a God, not blind fate
§
Lady
Philosophy's "consolation" to Boethius, even while awaiting execution
in prison cell: his life was not product of blind fate or uncaring force in
universe
Ascendancy of Byzantium
-
Byzantine
empire reached apex with Emperor Justinian; intended to restore empire to
state of grandeur; aided by wife Theodora
o
Encouraged
Persian monks in China to bring back silkworms for introduction of silk industry
in West
o
Revised and
codified Roman law because it was jumble of disorganized and contradictory
decisions, decrees, statutes, etc.
§
Legal scholar
Tribonian produced order out of chaos and divided laws into three parts:
·
Code- summarized all imperial decrees from time of
Hadrian (2nd century) to Justinian
·
Pandects
("digest")- synthesized vast quantity of
legal opinion and scholarship from past
·
Institutes- legal collection broken down into four categories
(laws concerning persons, things, actions, and personal wrongs)
o
fiercely
Christian
§
shut down
last surviving Platonic academy in world on grounds of paganism
§
Justinian's
won life was austere and abstemious, influenced by many monks in Constantinople
§
Very generous
toward church and constructed Hagia Sophia
Pg 162-171 Humanities Reading- Ravenna
Art and Architecture
-
repository of
monuments from late Roman, barbarian Gothic, and Byzantine history
-
Mausoleum
of Galla Placidia
o
Mausoleum
("burial chapel")- thought to be empress' tomb
o
Most likely a
votive chapel (small church built to fulfill a vow or promise most
usually dedicated to Virgin Mary or one of saints) to Saint Lawrence
§
In shape of
cross, plain on outside, tendency to combine basilica-style nave with structure
of a dome
o
beautiful
mosaics
§
north niche
above entrance has lunette (small arched space) mosaic depicting Christ
as good shepherd, beardless in Roman toga
§
vaulting of
both apse (altar at end of church) and dome covered with deep blue mosaic
with sunbursts and stars in gold- "Persian rug" motif symbolizes
heavens; tesserae (small cubes making up mosaic) not set fully flush in
wall, surfaces of mosaic irregular and refract/break up light in chapel
§
opposite
lunette of Good Shepherd is lunette depicting St. Lawrence next to gridiron and
codices of four gospels
·
above mosaics
are figures of apostles and symbols of search for religious understanding (deer,
doves, fountains)
·
in arches are
abstract interlocking designs with brightness and trumpe l'oeil
("trick-the-eye") quality
-
two
baptisteries of Ravenna represent major religious division of time between Orthodox
Christians (who believed in divinity of Christ) and Arian Christians
(who did not)
o
Neonian
Baptistry- built by
Orthodox Christians, octagonal and based on Roman bathhouses; ceiling mosaic
over baptismal pool striking, lower register mosaic above windows shows floral
designs based on common Roman decorative motifs
§
Circling
apostles on ceiling mosaic remind candidates that baptism was founded by
apostles and promise that baptism meant candidate would dwell with apostles in
heaven; codices on altars taught sources of beliefs, and empty thrones promised
Christians' place in heaven
·
Art, then was
"theology in color"
o
Arian
Baptistry built by Goths more
severely decorated
§
Christ's
baptism in central disc of ceiling mosaic
§
Figure of
river Jordon has lobster-like claws sprouting from forehead
§
Twelve
apostles in lower register divided into two groups- one led by Peter and one led
by Paul; groups converge at throne bearing a jeweled cross
-
Theodoric
(emperor of Goths who executed Boethius) buried in massive mausoleum on
outskirts of Ravenna
o
Also built Church
of Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, palace church of Theodoric; constructed in
basilica style
§
Mosaics
reflect both Roman and Byzantine styles of art
§
Mosaics added
when building passed from Goths to Byzantines: processions of Saints above aisle
arches that move toward Christ on one side and Madonna and child on other
·
Depiction of
Theodoric's palace shows evidence of Orthodox censorship in arched spaces of
mosaic
·
At lower
register, Gospel sequence is more Roman-inspired, severe, and simple; procession
of Saints more lush, reverent, and static
-
Chuch
of San Vitale- most
clearly testifies to presence of Justinian in Ravenna; dedicated by Bishop
Maximian and begum by Bishop Ecclesius year Justinian came to throne
o
Octagonal
with hint of basilica length (octagon within octagon with dome on octagonal
walls by small vaults called squinches)
o
Stunning
mosaics:
§
Christ the
Pantocrator who sustains all things in his hands; Christ portrayed as young man
in purple with book with seven seals in left hand, offering crown of martyrdom
to Saint Vitalis and flanked by two archangels
§
Mosaics to
left and right represent Justinian and Theodora as regents of Christ on earth
·
To left is
mosaic depicting Justinian and his attendants; soldiers carry shield with chi
(X) and rho (P)
o
Twelve
attendants, emperor divides clergy and laity
o
Justinian
represents Christ on earth, power balances church and state; he holds a paten
("bread basket")
·
to right is
Empress Theodora and attendants; Empress holds chalice
o
at hem of
Theodora's gown is small scene of Magi bringing gifts to Christ child
o
two women to
Theodora's close left striking and believed to be two of her closest friends:
wife and daughter of Belisarius, conquerer of Ravenna
o
ivory throne-
gift from emperor to Maximian
§
bishop's
throne (cathedra in Latin) bears monogram "Maximian, Bishop"
o
San Vital
represents fusion of imperial, Christian, and Middle Eastern Cultural impulses
Lecture- December 4, 2006
-
476AD- fall of Western Roman Empire
-
1453AD- Byzantine empire falls (conquered by Ottoman
Turks)
-
In Western
Europe in Medieval Era, Council of Nicea meets and decides:
o
Jesus is Son
of God
o
Trinity-
father, son, Holy Spirit
-
emperor in
Byzantine empire in charge of Church and state
-
Hagia Sophia-
"holy Wisdom
o
Built by
Justinian
o
Oval, built
with pendentas
o
Ataturk
turned Hagia Sophia from mosque into museum
o
Juxtaposition
of Christian and Islamic Art
o
Mithrab-
miche that points worshippers toward Mecca- and apse point toward general
direction (apse points toward Jerusalem, mithrab toward Mecca)
- 
-
iconography-
o
icon- a special image thought to help focus prayer
o
Roman
Catholics and Eastern Orthodox believe and pray to Saints
o
Votive
candles sometimes used
Pg 173-175 Humanities Reading- Persistence of
Byzantine Culture
-
persistence
of style and outlook of Byzantine Art because:
1.
until it fell
to Turks in 1453, Constantinople exerted much cultural influence over rest of
Eastern Christian world
a.
Russian
emissaries to Constantinople brought back to Russia favorable reports about
Byzantine Christianity and taste for Byzantine art (Hagia Sophia most impressed
delegates of Prince Vladimir, first Christian ruler in Russia-
"onion-domes" of Russia based on Byzantine domes)
i.
By 11th
century, Byzantine artists established schools of icon painting in Kiev
ii.
Even after
Mongol invasions of Russia in 1240, religious art still had ties with monastic
centers of Mount Athos and Salonica
b.
Byzantine
influence also strong in Italy because during iconoclastic controversy in east,
many artisans fled to Italy
i.
In Venice
especially, trade routes and Crusades permitted strong presence of Byzantine art
ii.
Up until
revolutionary changes by Cimabue and Giotto at end of 13th century,
Byzantine influence so great that art in greatly until then is called
Italo-Byzantine
2.
Byzantine art
often tied to theology and liturgical practices of the Orthodox Church; this led
to innate conservatism in art because artists discouraged to innovate
a.
explains why
icon painting is considered holy
b.
in our
century, there has been renaissance of appreciation for this painting style (ex.
In Greece, there has been modern attempt to purge Western influences in order to
recover more authentic link with great Byzantine tradition of past; in Russia,
surge of interest in past religious art led to careful conservation of icons,
exhibitions of art in museums, and intense study of heritage as well as interest
in Orthodox Church)- people can still visit small monastic communities (sketes)
-
Constantinople
had literary, philosophical, and theological culture
-
Later
Byzantine emperors encouraged humanistic and theological studies
-
Much Greek
learning came into West through Arabic sources because Greek not prominent
language in West until 15th century because of Greek-speaking
scholars from Constantinople
-
Refusion of
Greek culture can be sent through libraries of the time (ex. Vatican library has
4,000 books in 1484; 1,000 were Greek)
-
1453 takeover
of Constantinople by Turks ld many Greek scholars to Italy, enhancing interest
in Greek studies; they soon held chairs at various studia
("schools") teaching language, edited texts, wrote commentaries, and
fostered interest in Greek pagan learning
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