Humnities
Reading 139-143
Judaism
and Early Christianity
-
3,000 years ago,
people in Middle East became one of central sources for development of Western
Civilization
-
stages of Hebrew
growth
o
Period of the
Patriarchs- according
to Bible, Hebrew people originated with Abraham, the father/patriarch of a tribe
who took his people to land of Canaan; Abraham first person to establish
relationship with God
o
Period of
Exodus- Egyptians
enslaved Hebrews, who were eventually led out of Egypt under Moses in an exodus
("going out")
o
Period of
Conquest- struggles
of Hebrews to conquer land of Canaan
o
United Monarchy-
high point of Hebrew political power; three kinds (Saul, David, Soloman);
Soloman constructed great temple in Jerusalem
o
Divided Kingdom
and Exile- after
Soloman, Northern Kingdom divided from Southern; Northern destroyed, Southern
conquered by Babylonians who destroyed Soloman's temple and carried Hebrews into
exile known as the Babylonian Captivity
o
The Return-
Hebrews returned to resume religious life and were ruled by series of Greek,
Egyptian, Syrian rulers; finally fell under Roman control but after revolt in 70
C.E., Romans destroyed Jerusalem and razed temple; Jews would not hold political
power in ancestral home until 1948 with establishment of Israel
Hebrew
Bible and Its Message
-
Hebrew divided
books of bible into three groups:
o
The Law-
referred to first five books of Bible (aka Torah)
o
The Prophets-
consist of writings attributed to great moral teachers of the Hebrews called
prophets because they spoke with the authority of God
o
The Writings-
wisdom literature, prose, and/or poetry
-
list of books in
modern Bible not established until 90 C.E. when rabbis drew up a list of books (aka
canon)
o
Christians
accepted canon and added Christian Scriptures of the New Testament
o
Roman Catholics
and Orthodox Christian also accept some books found in the Greek version of the
Hebrew Scriptures known as Septuagint, a version of Bible widely used in
ancient world
-
both ancient
Israel and Jewish people made Bible central document for worship and moral guide
for religious and ethical stability
-
Bible contains
motifs; three in particular-
1.
Biblical
monotheism-
a.
One God, God is
good, God involved in human history
i.
Genesis says that God existed before world and called it into existence
ii.
God pronounces creation and material universe "good"
iii.
Humans apex of creation and must care for world
b.
covenant
i.
relationship between God and Hebrew people (also known as testament)(
ii.
"I will be your God; you will be my people."
2.
Ethics
a.
Humans created in
likeness of God
b.
Prophets speak
with God's authority
i.
Call people back to observance of covenant and warn them about ways they
failed covenant
ii.
Linked worship with deep concern for ethics
iii.
Prophetic element one of Israel's contributions to religion
3.
Models and
Types
a.
Few Jews or
Christians read Bible until modern times because literacy rare, books expensive
b.
Events and stories
from Bible models of instruction and illumination
Humanities
Reading Pg 143-149
Begiinnings
of Early Christianity
-
Jesus-
Jewish, born during reign of Augustus in Roman-occupied land of Judaea
o
Everything known
comes from Gospels ("good news") attributed to Matthew, Mark,
Luke, and John
o
Preached coming of
God's kingdom, which would be reign of justice and mercy but until then, people
must live life of repentance, abandonment of earthly concerns, love of God and
neighbor, compassion for poor, downcast, and marginalized, etc.
o
Set forth his life
as example; identified with poor and powerless
o
Most
characteristic expression of Jesus' teachings is in parables and in moral
code he expressed called the Beatutudes or the Sermon on the Mount
o
Gospels depict
Jesus as Christ ("anointed one"), the Savior who would bring
about God's kingdom
§
Early Christian
church insisted that Jesus overcame death; centerpieces of Christian faith and
basis
Christianity
Spreads
-
Saul of Taurus-
post-conversion name was Paul
o
Originally a
Jewish zealot near Damascus, Syria
o
Insisted that
non-Jewish converts to movement would not have to adhere to all Jewish religious
customs
§
Changed
Christianity from religious movement in Judaism to independent movement
o
Was missionary;
was executed by Romans
-
Emperor Nero used
Christians as scapegoats for fire that destroyed Rome
-
Social factors
that aided spread of Christianity;
o
Peace in Roman
Empire
o
System of safe
roads made travel easy
o
Common language (koine-
a form of Greek)
o
Christianity first
preached in network of Jewish centers
-
religious reasons
Christianity spread;
o
growing interest
of pagans in monotheism
o
emphasis on
salvation and freedom from sin
o
Christian custom
of offering mutual aid and charity to its memers
o
Relative freedom
from class distinctions
Persecution
-
first because of
Jewish resistance in Jerusalem to Christianity, then because Roman emperors
expelled Christians
-
Edict of Milan-
granted Christianity toleration
-
Reasons for
persecution-
o
Christian
communities seemed secretive; they had own network of communication in empire
o
Christians kept
away from politics
o
They refused to
pay homage to state gods and goddesses- charged as atheists and therefore
traitors-
§
Romans conceived
that society was bound in web of pietás (a combination of love and
reverential fear); one should express pietás to family to state to gods; this
brings harmony and state flourishes
§
Christians refused
to express pietás to gods, striking at heart of civic order
-
apologists-
writers that tried to answer charges, insisting that Christians wanted to be
good citizens and could be
o
wrote about
beliefs and why they could not worship Roman deities
o
protested roles as
ready scapegoats
o
Justin Martyr-
important apologist who taught in Rome and wrote apologies to emperors asking
for toleration
§
Beheaded
Early
Christian Art
-
little significant
art/architecture before fourth century because Christians illegal
-
some Christian art
was maintained in cemeteries of Christian communities known as catacombs
-
categories of art:
1.
frescoes
a.
most depict
biblical subjects reflecting salvation/eternal life
b.
common motifs-
last supper, Virgin and child
2.
glass and
sculpture
a.
statue of Christ
as Good Shepard, unbearded, from this time
b.
glass disks with
gold paper cutouts common in individual tomb slots
c.
after
Constantine's rule, elaborate sarcophagi common
3.
inscriptions
a.
each tomb was
covered by marble slab cemented in place with name and death date inscribed
b.
frequently, symbol
carved
i.
anchor- hope
ii.
dove with olive branch- peace
iii.
fish- Greek letters that spell fish anagram for phrase "Jesus
Christ, Son of God and Savior"
4.
Dura-Euopos
a.
Small town in
present-day Syria, Roman garrison town, destroyed by Persian armies, covered by
sand for nearly 1700 years
i.
Showed that Romans, Jews, Christian could coexist in empire
ii.
Revealed mingling of religious cultures and that Jewish resistance to
visual arts not total
Constantine
and Early Christian Architecture
-
two of most famous
churches built during reign of Constantine:
1.
St. Peter's
Basilica in Vatican
City
a. 
2.
Church of the
Holy Sepulcher
a.
Built in basilica
style but behind basilica is domed structure which covers (it is belived) the
place where Christ was buried for three days
b.
Utilized Christian
architecture and Roman domes
Humanities
Book Pg 181-183
Muhammad
and the Birth of Islam
-
Muhammad born in
Mecca; he married rich widow and had a daughter, Fatima, who married
first Imam (authoritative religious leader) of the Shiites
-
Fatima venerated
as symbol of piety and purity
-
Muhammad began
receiving revelations from God at 40 years through Gabriel- he experienced
severe opposition in Mecca when he publicly preached his ideas and had to flee-
Muslims call this the hegira, and it marks the beginning of the Muslim
calendar (year 622 A.D. on Christian calendar)
o
Muhammad fled to Medina,
where he gained a community of supporters
o
He was so
successful that he returned to Mecca and made its pagan shrine- the Qa'aba
("cube")- the focal point of his religion
-
monotheism is
fundamental principle of Islam ("submission [to God]")
o
rejected Trinity
of persons in God (Christian belief)
-
Muhammad
articulated the Five Pillars of Islam:
1.
Belief in one God
and that Muhammad is messenger of God
2.
Obligation to pray
five times a day in direction of Mecca
3.
Donate a portion
of surplus wealth to charity
4.
Fast during holy
month of Ramadan
5.
Make pilgrimage to
Mecca (called the Haj) at least once in a lifetime
-
Muslims do not eat
pork products, drink alcohol; males circumcised, polygamy permitted, usury
forbidden
-
Simplicity of
original Islamic teaching, emphasis on submission to will of one God, insistence
on daily prayer, appeal for charity, demand for asceticism in life all helped
explain rapid spread of new religion out of Arabia
Qur'an
-
followers of
Muhammad began writing down his revelations
-
Qur'an-
"recitation"
o
Divided into 114
chapters (called Sûras)
o
There is opening
chapter of a short prayer invoking name of God followed by 113 chapters arranged
by length (ch. 2 longest, last chapters 1-2 lines long)
o
Muslims believe
that Qur'an came as result of divine dictation and cannot be translated and be
Holy
§
Qur'an serves as
unification for all Muslims
§
Qur'an is
literally God's word to people and is held in highest reverence
-
Hadith-
authoritative commenters on Qur'an and explication of certain oral traditions
about Prophet and early Islamic community
o
From this, Shari'a
law developed
Humanities
Reading Pg 184-188
Islamic
Architecture
-
Through Islam's
history, it has built buildings suitable for circumstances
-
Basic needs of a
mosque-
o
Large covered
space for people to pray, typically covered with rugs
o
No furniture
except for steps leading up to minbar (pulpit)
o
Michrab-
a niche in wall that indicates direction of Mecca
o
In traditional
mosques, there is usually fountain so devout may cleanse hands, feet, and mouth
before prayer
o
Next to mosque is
tower so Muezzin may call faithful to prayer five times a day
-
although primarily
a shelter for faithful to pray, in Islamic communities it serves as community
gathering centre
o
mosques: Islamic
countries:: forum: Romans:: precincts: Medieval cathedral
-
simple
requirements of mosques allowed architectural ingenuity
-
Dome of the
Rock in Jerusalem- earliest and one of most spectacular achievements of Islamic
Architecture, built by Caliph Abd al Malik of Damascus on the Temple Mount
in Jerusalem
o
Octagonal building
capped by golden dome, which sits on heavy drum supported by four pillars and 12
columns
o
Interior decorated
with mosaics that were replaced by tiles in Middle Ages
o
Original purpose
unclear; may have been built as counterpoint to Holy Sepulcher making artistic
argument that Islam is worthy successor of Judaism and Christianity
§
Some believe it is
on spot of night journey of the Prophet from Jerusalem to heaven, other say it
is where Abraham almost sacrificed son (Ishmael) while other believe it is where
Adam died and was buried
-
Great Mosque of
Damascus- built on
site of Roman temple turned into Byzantine church (wall surrounding church are
now walls of Mosque)
o
Interior prayer
hall has three spaces separated by heavy columns
o
Interior decorated
lavishly with lower registers paneled in marble and upper decorated with mosaics
o
Caliph's palace
was next to mosque so he could pass easily from home to mosque
-
Great
Mosque in Córdoba, Spain
o
Muslims arrived in
Spain in eighth century and made Córdoba their capital
o
Al-Hakam,
ruler of city, enhanced mosque to make it rival the great mosque in Damascus
§
Sent emissaries to
emperor in Constantinople with request for workmen (emperor complied and sent 17
tons of tesserae- colored cubes for use in a mosaic)
§
Mosque survived
when Christians drove Muslims out of Spain in 1492 in period known as Reconquista
-
Alhambra
in Granada
o
Escaped
Reconquista
o
Consists of two
adjacent palaces; the Palace of the Myrtles and the Palace of the
Lions
§
Both have central
courtyard with covered walkways/porches
§
Palace of Myrtles
was used for public occasions, Palace of Lions was private home
§
Some suggest the
complex was meant for study, teaching, and research- like an Islamic University
§
Most cunning
aspect of complex is use of water
-
India's
Taj Mahal
o
Built by Mughal
emperor Shah Jahan who had wife named Mumtaz Muhal; she died giving birth
to 14th child, and emperor built complex to house her body and honor
her memory
o
Built on banks of
Jumna on outskirts of Agra
o
Made from highly
polished white marble
o
Exterior
decorations restrained
Humanities
Reading Pg 188-192
Sufism
-
85% Sunni
("well trod"), minority shi'a ("party" or
"tradition")
-
within large
branches of Islam are minor branches and traditions; from point of Muslim
literature, one of most influential traditions if Sufism
o
describes an
ancient, complex movement of communities or small groups of teachers with
immense religious authority (called sheyks) and their disciples that
emphasized practices and disciplines that would lead a person to direct
experience with God during lifetime
·
represents
mystical dimension of Islam
·
Sufi mystics
tended to live life of retirement in poverty, preaching about piety and
repentance
o
Many forms of
Sufism with significant presence in North Africa and Egypt
o
Saint Rabia
·
Kidnapped and sold
into slavery as child, was freed and became convinced that she was one of God's
chosen ones
·
Regarded a highly
developed sense of love of God as key to union with God, expressed her
convictions in series of aphorisms, poems, meditations
o
Rumi-
most famous Sufi poet
·
Born in
present-day Afghanistan, moved to present-day Turkey
·
Used rhyming
couplets, wrote in Persian
·
Recited poems
while dancing and founded a community of ecstatic dancers (dervishes)
Culture
of Islam and the West
-
under Abbasid
Dynasty in Baghdad, Islamic culture flourished
-
papermaking
learned from Chinese prisoner
-
Caliph Al-Mamum
built a library and study centre known as the Bait al-hikma (the
"House of Wisdom")
o
Crucial because
scholars translated and preserved many works of Aristotle, Plate, Galen, and
treatises of Neo-Platonic authors into Arabic
o
Great scholar
there was Al-Khwarizmi who:
1.
led three
expeditions to India and Byzantium to gather manuscripts and meet other scholars
2.
invented algebra
3.
Medieval Europeans
gave another mathematical term to his writings- algorithm
4.
adapted Hindu
notations for numbers that used 9 symbols and a placeholder (zero), simplifying
Greek and Latin notational system
o
Al-Uqlidisi
developed decimal fractions which permitted calculations like 365.242199 days in
a solar year
-
Egyptian scientist
Al-Hazen did crucial work in optics and technology of grinding and making
lenses
-
Scholars in Muslim
world who had contact with Greek medicine and shaped the future of medicine:
o
Rhazes-
·
Head of hospital
in Baghdad, excelled in clinical observation and demonstrated that smallpox and
measles were two distinct diseases, helping other scientists understand nature
and spread of infectious diseases
o
Avicenna and
Averoes-
·
Wrote influential
treatises in Medicine
o
Maimonides-
Jewish physician
·
Stressed need for
personal hygiene as way of avoiding disease, did influential work on nature of
poisons
·
So renowned that
he was called from Spain to serve as personal doctor to sultan of Baghdad
·
High reputation of
Jewish physicians lived through Renaissance
-
centuries in
Abassid Dynasty and flourishing culture gave Europe goods through trade that was
legendary for quality
o
sword makers of
Damascus and Toledo
o
coffee-
Muslim traders in Ethiopia pulverized beans to brew drink, and coffeehouses soon
abounded
World
History Reading Pg 256-260
-
after Muhammad
died, Abu Bakr, the first ever caliph (successor to Muhammad)
faced tribal leaders whose loyalty was solely to Muhammad- but he reunited them
-
under first four
caliphs, Arab armies conquered huge chunks of Byzantine empire, demolished
Persian empire, swept across Strait of Gibraltar into Spain, and was finally
defeated at the Battle of Tours
o
Muslims also
besieged Constantinople but failed to take it
-
reasons for
success:
o
weakness of
Byzantine and Persian empires caused by years of fighting to exhaustion
o
bold, efficient
fighting methods
o
common faith
Muhammad gave people unified state
-
Muslims taxed
non-Muslims under their rule but allowed Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians to
practice faiths and follow own laws
o
Soon, Jews and
Christians played key roles as officials, doctors, translators
o
Many nomadic
people converted because of its message was simple and they saw its triumph as
sign of God's favor
-
Muslims controlled
Spain until 1492
o
Spain Flourished
as centre of Muslim civilization
o
Muslim presided
over brilliant courts where arts/learning thrived
o
Muslim leaders
generally more religiously tolerant than Christian leaders of the time
o
Muslim influence
strong in Sicily and other Mediterranean islands even after knights from
Normandy gained control again
Movements
Within Islam
-
Sunnis- felt that
caliph should be chosen by leaders of Muslim community, viewed caliph simply as
a leader, not religious authority
-
Shiites argued
that only true successors to Prophet were descendants of Muhammad's daughter and
son-in-law (Fatima and Ali)
o
Ali became fourth
caliph but was assassinated in struggle for leadership; his son later killed
o
Shiites few to
admire martyrdom as demonstration of faith
-
both Sunnis and
Shiites believe in same God, look to Qur'an for guidance, and make haj
-
Sufi-
Muslim mystics seeking communion with God through meditation, fasting, and other
rituals; respected for piety and miraculous powers
o
Helped spread
Islam through missionary work and blended local traditions with Muslim culture
Empire
of Caliphs
-
after death of
Ali, Umayyad family set up dynasty that ruled until 750 from their
capital in Damascus in Syria
-
problems of
Umayyads-
1.
adapt desert life
to ruling large cities and territories; they had to rely on local officials
(including Jews, Greeks, and Persians) which resulted in influence by Byzantine
and Persian traditions of government
2.
during conquest,
wealth flowed in but when they slowed, tensions increased between wealthy Arabs
and those who had less
3.
Muslims criticized
court at Damascus for abandoning simple ways
4.
Shiites hated
Umayyads for defeating Ali and his son
5.
Unrest among
non-Arabs who had fewer rights under Umayyads
-
discontented
Muslins found Abu al-Abbas as leader who captured Damascus and killed all
of Umayyad family to establish Abbasid Dynasty
o
Abbassid Dynasty
led Arabs to Golden Age
o
Baghdad
was capital- nicknamed "City of Peace, Gift of God, Paradise on Earth"
·
Strongly
influenced by Persian tradition
·
City reached peak
under reign of Harun al-Rashid
-
Starting 850,
Abbassid control over Arab empire fragmented
o
Seljuk Turks
migrated to Middle East
·
Adopted Islam and
built large empire that eventually led sultan to control Baghdad (he left caliph
as figurehead)
·
Seljuk
interference with Christian pilgrims migrating to Jerusalem led to first crusade
o
Christian
crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099 only to have Muslim general Salah al-Din
to oust Christians in 1187; Christians recaptured Jerusalem after his death
-
Mongol King Hulagu
led Mongols to burn and loot Baghdad and kill last of Abbassid caliphs; Mongols
later adopted Islam
o
Timur the Lame led
armies to conquer Muslim and non-Muslim lands through Persia and Mesopotamia
-
by 1200s, Arab
empire fragmented and fallen; independent Muslim caliphates and states scattered
across North Africa and Spain
o
Islam continued to
link diverse peoples across area Muslims called Dar al-Islam ("Abode
of Islam")
Genesis
Day | Creation |
1 2 3 4 5 6 | Day Heaven Land Seasons, Fowls Animals |
Ten
Commandments
1.
"I am the LORD your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt,
from the house of slavery. You shall have no other gods before Me..."
2.
"Do not make a sculpted image or any likeness of what is in the
heavens above..."
3.
"Do not swear falsely by the name of the LORD..."
4.
"Remember [zachor] the Sabbath day and keep it holy"
(the version in Deuteronomy reads shamor, "observe")
5.
"Honor your father and your mother..."
6.
"Do not murder"
7.
"Do not commit adultery."
8.
"Do not steal."
9.
"Do not bear false witness against your neighbor"
10.
"Do not covet your neighbor's house..."
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