Pg
180-185 (World History)
-
Middle Ages- 500-1450
o
During early Middles Ages (500-100), Europe was largely cut
off from advanced civilizations in Middle East, China, India
GEOGRAPHY
OF WESTERN EUROPE
-
Europe was linked by Rome's miles of roads and language and
Christianity; Germanic peoples ended Roman rule in west and shifted focus of
Europe from Mediterranean to north
-
500-1000- Northern Europe was a frontier land- a sparsely
populated, undeveloped area on the outskirts of civilization
o
even unsettled, it had great potential as farmland and had
mines
GEMANIC
KINGDOMS
-
Germanic tribes were farmers and herders with no cities or
written laws but were governed by unwritten customs; elected a king to lead in
war, warrior nobles swore loyalty to king in exchange for weapons and loot
-
Franks- strongest Germanic kingdom to
emerge
o
Clovis, king of Franks,
conquered former Roman province of Gaul and preserved much of Roman
legacy- converted to Christianity and gained support of people and Church
of Rome
EUROPE
AND THE MUSLIM WORLD-
-
as Germanic people carved up Europe, Muslim empire arose and
Muslim armies overran Christian lands; Charles Martel rallied Frankish
warriors and defeated Muslims at the Battle of Tours, halting Muslim
advance into Western Europe
AGE
OF CHARLEMAGNE
-
Charlemagne- grandson of Charles Martel
o
United France, Germany, and part of Italy
o
Loved battle and spent much of his reign fighting and
conquering
o
Was crowned Emperor of Romans by Pope Leo III because he
helped crush a rebellion in Roma
§
Significant because Pope had crowned a German king successor
to Roman emperors, reviving idea of a united Christian community
·
Outraged emperor of eastern Roman empire, who saw himself as
sole Roman ruler, deepening schism between Catholic and Eastern Orthodox
-
tried uniting Christian Europe by sending missionaries
-
appointed powerful nobles to rule local regions and sent out missi
dominici to keep control
-
wanted to make his court at Aachen a "second
Rome"; tried to revive learning, though he himself was illiterate
o
founded school under direction of Alcuin of York, a
respected scholar who created a curriculum (formal course of study) based
on Latin learning
-
after Charlemagne died, heirs battled for power for thirty
years before Treaty of Verdun was drawn to split empire into three
regions
-
Charlemagne left extended Christian civilization and strong,
efficient government
-
Charlemagne’s heirs faced threats from Muslim forces,
Magyars, and Vikings
Ph 197-198 (Humanities Book)
CHARLEMAGNE
-
crowned emperor of Roman Empire by Pope Leo III; Byzantine
court saw action as rebellion
o
marked revival of Roman Empire in West
-
rule was essentially feudal; adapted classic Roman
administrative machinery
-
issued Roman-style decrees that legates delivered; created
class of civil servants with reasonable level of literacy, important to
cultivation of letters
-
rule over immense kingdom but had extensive diplomatic
contact outside kingdom; maintained regular, if testy, relationship with Emperor
in Constantinople
-
relations with Muslim kingdoms-
o
Charles Martel (Charlemagne’s grandfather) defeated Muslims
at Battle of Poitiers; Charlemagne fought Muslims on borders; however, he had
great diplomatic ties with al-Rashid, caliph of Baghdad
§
Sent embassy to al-Rashid to beg protection for holy
Christian places in Muslim-held Palestine- caliph welcomed Frankish legates and
their gifts and sent elephant to Charlemagne as gesture of friendship;
Charlemagne successful in negotiations and got keys to Holy Sepulchre and other
major Christian shrines in Palestine, making emperor the official guardian of
holiest shrines in Christendom
-
stabilized currency of kingdom, had vigorous trade and
commerce, welcomed Jewish immigrants who provided merchant class for commerce,
had trade fair at Saint Denis and Pavia, used rivers as trade routes
o
one of most sought-after articles were iron broadswords;
trade embargoes existed against Vikings who used them against their Frankish
manufacturers
PG 186-190 (World
History Book)- Feudalism and the Manor Economy
-
king and emperors too weak to maintain law and order, so feudalism
evolved
o
feudalism- loosely organized system of rule
in which powerful local lords divided their landholdings among lesser lords; in
exchange, lesser lords (vassals) pledged service and loyalty to the
greater lord
o
feudal contract- exchange of pledges between lords
and vassals
§
lord granted vassal a fief (estate) with peasants to
work land
§
lord promised to protect vassal
§
vassal pledged loyalty to his lord, agreed to provide lord
with forty days military service each year, paid certain amounts and advised
lord
§ 
-
sometimes, a man was both vassal and lord
-
vassals often held fiefs from more than one lord, so when his
lords quarreled with each other, his first loyalty went to his liege lord
WORLD OF NOBLES
-
warfare was way of life because rivalry between lords for
power
-
many nobles trained from boyhood to become knight (mounted
warrior)
o
boys sent away to castle of his father’s lord, where he
learned to ride and fight training was difficult, discipline strict
o
older knights dubbed youth a knight
-
tournaments (mock battles)
came into fashion- lord invited knights from surrounding area to enter contests
o fighting skill
o
at first, tournaments as dangerous as real battles and
captured knights held for ransom
-
lords fortified homes to withstand attack
o
keep- wooden tower ringed by a fence separated from
surrounding area by a moat
-
noblewomen played active role in society
o
while husband or father was off fighting, “lady of the
manor” took over his duties and sometimes went to war to defend her estate
o
Eleanor of Aquitaine
took hand in politics for more than fifty years
§
Became Queen of France through marriage to Louis VII, then
queen of England through marriage to Henry II
o
women’s rights to inheritance severely restricted under
feudal system, land usually passed to eldest son in family
o
daughters sent to friends or relatives for training
§
expected to know how to spin, weave, supervise servants
§
as a wife, expected to bear many children and be dutiful to
husband
-
chivalry- knight’s code of conduct
(applied only to nobles, not commoners)
o
expected to be brave, loyal, and true to their word
o
had to fight fairly
o
must treat captured knights well and release him if he
promised to pay his ransom
o
placed women on pedestal
o
troubadours (wandering poets)
adopted view of women on pedestals
PEASANTS AND MANOR LIFE
-
heart of medieval economy was manor (lord’s estate)
o
peasants on manor were serfs, bound to land and could
not leave land without lord’s permission
o
peasants worked several days a week, repaired roads, bridges,
and fences, paid lord a fee upon marriage, when they inherited father’s acres,
when they used local mill to grin grain, etc.
o
money largely disappeared, so payments were in goods
o
peasants entitled to lord’s protection from Viking raids or
feudal warfare, could not be forced off land, guaranteed (in theory) food,
housing, land
o
manor generally self-sufficient and most peasants never
ventured more than few miles from village, had no schooling and no knowledge of
larger world outside
o
most manors included a few dozen one-room huts clustered
together in a village, a water mill to grind grain, a tiny church, and the manor
house with narrow strips of land for farming
PEASANT LIFE
-
harsh life, worked long hours in fields, ate black bread with
vegetables (seldom ate meat)
-
worked according to seasons
-
disease took heavy toll, few peasants lived past 35
Pg 199-200-
(Humanities book)- Learning in the Time of Charlemagne
-
opened “palace school”- prime factor in initiating
Carolingian Renaissance
o
before Charlemagne, literacy existed but hardly thrived, in
monastic centers in Western Europe- original scholarship rare, but monastic
copyists preserved texts
-
Charlemagne brought Alcuin of York to Aachen to his
“palace school”
o
Alcuin had been trained in English intellectual tradition of
Venerable Bede
-
Charlemagne hired scholar-teachers because:
1.
He wished to establish system of education for the young of
his kingdom and develop literacy
a.
Alcuin developed curriculum insisting that humane learning
should consist of studies that developed logic and science
i.
Seven Liberal Arts:
1.
trivium- grammar, rhetoric, dialect
2.
quadrivium- arithmetic, geometry, music,
astronomy
b.
few books available- all study based largely on rote mastery
of texts
2.
He needed scholars to reform existing texts and to half their
terrible corruption, especially in church worship (literary revival closely
connected with liturgical revival)
a.
Alcuin of Work worked at revising liturgical books
i.
Published a book of Old and New Testament passages in Latin
for public reading
ii.
Published sacramentary (book of prayers and rites for
administration of sacraments of church)- made obligatory for all Frankish
churches
iii.
Roman (Gregorian) chant made obligatory
iv.
Alcuin attempted to correct scribal errors in vulgate Bible
but never finished
3.
belief that learned would lead to better grasp of revealed
truth (the Bible)
a.
principles of correct writing/argumentation could be applied
to study of Bible to get closer to its truth
b.
pursuit of analysis, definition, and verbal clarity were
roots from which scholastic philosophy sprung
-
under Charlemagne, system of schools (centered on monasteries
and towns) developed
o
establishment of schools accomplished by stream of decrees
and capitularies (official letters with legal and administrative stipulations
sent out under imperial seal)
-
Charlemagne’s reforms came when education was low in Europe
and many came to naught after him
-
Evidence of learning among aristocratic women of
Charlemagne’s court
o
Dhouda- wrote manual for Christian living
for her son
o
Illuminated manuscripts may have been done by some nuns
Pg 191-196 (World
History)- The Medieval Church
-
Medieval Church- most powerful church in Europe and shaped
lives of Christian Europeans
o
Most important achievement was Christianizing diverse peoples
of Western Europe
CHURCH AND MEDIEVAL
LIFE
-
in local region/manor villages, parish priest was
usually only contact people had with church; he administered sacraments (the
sacred rites of the church) that Christians believed would lead to salvation
(everlasting life with God), preached Gospels, guided people on issues
regarding values and morality, and often offered assistance to the sick and
needy, sometimes ran schools
o
church was social center as well as place of worship;
villages took pride in church buildings and decorated them with care
-
church required Christians to pay tithe (tax equal to 1/10
of income) to support itself and parishes; tithing still common in churches
today
-
daily life revolved around Christian calendar marked by
“holy days”
-
church taught that men and
women equal in eyes of God but on Earth, women needed guidance of men because
they were “daughters of Eve”, weak and easily led into sin
o
ideal woman- Virgin Mary
o
Church tried to protect women
MONKS AND NUNS
-
devoted lives to spiritual goals
-
monk named Benedict drew up set of rules to regulate
monastic life and was used by monasteries and convents across Europe; three
vows-
1.
obedience to abbot or abbess
2.
poverty
3.
chastity
o
each day divided into periods for worship, work, and study
o
Benedict believed in spiritual value of manual labor, so nuns
and monks cleared and drained land and experimented with crops
-
monasteries and convents often provided basic services
because hospitals and schools nonexistent, preserved writings of ancient world
through copying texts, and kept learning alive
o
Abbot Cassiodorus wrote summaries of Greek/Latin works,
taught classics to other monks
o
Venerable Bede wrote earliest known history of England,
introduced use of ‘B.C.” and “A.D.”
-
women could not become priests but did enter convents and
escaped limits of society
o
Abbess Hildgard of Bingen
composed religious music, wrote books; had mystical visions, so many popes and
rulers sought her advice
o
Later, church put more restrictions on nuns, withdrawing
rights that nuns once enjoyed
POWER OF THE CHURCH
GROWS
-
church became most powerful institution in Europe after fall
of Rome
-
pope was spiritual leader of Roman Catholic Church and
claimed papal supremacy (authority over all secular rulers)
o
high clergy was usually nobles who had territories (pope
himself held vast lands in central Italy, later called Papal States)
o
churchmen were often only educated people, so feudal lords
often appointed them to high government positions
-
church developed canon lay (body of laws by church)
and its own courts
o
anyone who disobeyed church faced excommunication (could
not receive sacraments or Christian burial)
o
powerful noble who opposed church faced interdict (an
order excluding an entire town, region, or kingdom from receiving most
sacraments of a Christian burial)
-
church declared periods of truce known as Peace of God
between Friday and Sunday and on religious holidays
o
may have led to decrease in feudal warfare
REFORM MOVEMENTS
-
success of Medieval church led to corruption and decreased
discipline
-
Clunaic Reforms-
o
Abbot Berno of Cluny
revived Benedictine Rule, declared that nobles could not interfere in monastery
affairs, filled monastery at Cluny with men devoted to religious pursuits
o
Pope Gregory VII extended reforms, outlawed marriage for
priests and prohibited simony (selling church offices), insisted that
church, not kings or nobles, choose church officials
o
Francis of Assisi set up order of friars, monks who did
not live in isolated monasteries but traveled around Europe’s growing towns
preaching to poor (preached poverty, humility, love of God); known as
Franciscan order
o
Later, Dominic, a Spanish priest, set up Dominican order to
combat heresy by teaching beliefs
o
Women also created new religious groups like the Beguines
who welcomed women without wealth to enter convent using funds from selling
their weavings/embroidery to help poor and set up hospitals/shelters
JEWS IN EUROPE
-
flourished in Spain (known as Sephardim); Muslims who
conquered Spain were tolerant of Jews and Christians
-
Jewish farmers migrated to other parts of Western Europe
during middles ages and became known as Ashkenazim
-
For centuries, Christians and Jews lived side by side in
relative peace, but Christian persecution of Jews increased in 1000s and charged
that Jews were responsible for death of Jesus; Church issued orders forbidding
Jews to own land and practice most occupations but turned to educated Jews and
financial advisors/physicians
o
Anti-Semitism (prejudice against Jews)
increased as people faced disasters they couldn’t understand (like illness,
famine) and thousands of Jews migrated to Eastern Europe
Pg 200-203
(Humanities Book)- Benedictine Monasticism
-
monasticism- based on asceticism and eremitism (solitary
life); no form of monasticism predominant before Charlemagne, no rule of life so
monastic lifestyles varied from monastery to monastery
RULE OF SAINT
BENEDICT
-
by Benedict of Nursia and became Magna Carta of Western
Monasticism
-
Charlemagne had Alcuin of York bring rule to kingdom and
impose it on monasteries for some sense of regular observance
-
Rule of Benedict consists of prologue and 73 chapters setting
out ideal monastic life
o
Monks (brethren) were to live family life under direction of
freely elected father (abbot) for purpose of being schooled in religious
perfection
o
Poverty (possess nothing), stability (live in one monastery
and not wander), obedience to abbot, chastity (never marry)
o
Prayer life centered around appointed hours of liturgical
praise of God to mark intervals of day (called “Divine Office”), consisted
of public recitation of psalms, hymns, and prayers
o
Motto of Benedictine monasticism: “Pray and Work.”
o
Daily life determined by sunrise and sunset; typical day
called the horarium, which set aside four hours prayer an reading, six
hours of work
§
Triumph in balance between extreme asceticism of Eastern
Europe and unstructured life of Western monasticism
WOMEN AND THE
MONASTIC LIFE
-
Scholastic, Benedict’s sister, was head of a monastery;
Brigid of Ireland had legends about her prowess as miracle worker; Hilda abbess
of Whitby ruled over monastery that was prominent center of learning and held
famous Episcopal gathering (synod) to determine church policy and fostered
talents of cowherd poet Caedmon
-
Monasticism presumed certain degree of literacy, so women
could exercise talents outside confines of society
o
Hildegard of Bingen wrote
treatises on prayer, philosophy, medicine, and devotion, was painter,
illustrator, musician, critic, preacher
MONASTICISM AND THE
GREGORIAN CHANT
-
main occupation of monk- Opus Dei (work of God)- life
centered around monastic church so copying, correcting, and illuminating
manuscripts important for religious services and lectio divina (divine
reading), a lifelong study of scripture
-
Charlemagne interested in church music and brought monks from
Rome to reform/stabilize music
o
Roman music tradition known as Gregorian chant after Pope
Gregory the Great who was believed to have codified music
o
Gregorian chant monophonic (one or more voices singing
single melodic line) and usually a capella
§
Most music consisted of simple chants for recitation of the
psalms at the Divine office; called cantus planus (“plainsong” or
“plainchant”)
§
Neums notate Gregorian chant
§
No rests
§
Extensive elaboration of syllables by chain of
intricate notes called melisma
Pg 207-209
(Humanities Book)- The Illuminated Book
-
manuscripts made of parchment (treated animal skins mainly
from cows and sheep) because papyrus unavailable and papermaking unknown; very
fine books had parchment dyed pueple with silver/gold pigments
-
Gospel Book of Charlemagne-
clear that artists were conscious of Roman style- had four evangelists with
togas (like Roman consuls)
o
Artist experiments with three-dimensionality, bringing
evangelists forward and diminishing flatness we associate with Byzantine and
Celtic illustrations
-
Utrect Psalter- masterpiece
of Carolingian Renaissance
o
Contains whole Psalter with pen drawings
o
Figures mobile, show nervous energy
o
Celtic influence
-
Carolingian manuscript art had certain international flavor
and various styles/borrowings- such universality would diminish in next century
until period of International Style in 4th century
-
Ivory carving also flourished, used as book covers
o
Dagulf Psalter- manuscript with both
illustrations and ivory work, gift to Pope Hadrian I
§
first letter of first, 51st, and 101st
psalms enlarged and illuminated
§
ivories contain two scenes per panel
-
calligraphy also developed
o
handwriting before Carolingian period was cluttered,
unformed, cramped, difficult to read
o
Carolingian miniscule-
rounded form of lettering- developed and was so crisp and legible that it became
standard form of manuscript writing
Medieval Medicine
Lecture Notes
-
when you got sick, you went to church/monastery or folk
healer
-
blood-letting common but could get infected
-
trepanation- drilling a hole through
someone’s head
Humor | Temper | Organ | Element | Nature |
black bile | melancholic | spleen | earth | cold dry |
phlegm | phlegmatic | lungs | water | cold wet |
blood | sanguine | head | air | warm wet |
yellow bile | choleric | gall bladder | fire | warm dry |
Pg 197-200- World
History Book- Economic Expansion and Change
-
High Middle Ages- 1000-1300
AN AGRICULTURAL
REVOLUTION
-
peasants adapted new farming technologies that made their
fields more productive
o
iron plows vs. wooden plows
o
harness that allowed horses to pull plow rather than oxen
o
windmills that could grind grain allowed flour to be made
with no water (water mill) around
o
three-field system adopted (one field with grain, one with
legumes, and third fallow)
o
all of these technological advancements allowed
population of Europe to double
TRADE REVIVES
-
as population increased, demands for iron, goods, etc.
increased; foreign invasion and feudal warfare decreased, traders began
crisscrossing Europe
-
at first, traders and customers did business at trade fairs
that took place every year near navigable rivers or where busy trade routes met
-
when trade fairs closed in autumn, merchants might wait out
winter near castle or in a town with a bishop’s palace; artisans attracted to
settlements because they made goods that merchant could sell
o
those settlements developed into first real medieval cities
(richest cities in Italy and Flanders, ends of a profitable north-south trade
route
o
peasants would ask local lord or, if possible, the king for a
charter (a written document that set out the rights and privileges of the
town; in return, merchants paid the lord or king large sum of money, a yearly
fee)
§
most charters had clause declaring that anyone who lived in
the town for year and a day was free
COMMERCIAL
REVOLUTION
-
people began needing capital
(money for investment) so banking houses grew
-
sometimes, many merchants joined
together in an organization known as partnership where a group of
merchants pooled their funds to finance a large-scale venture that would be too
costly for any individual trader
o
reduced risk for any one partner
because no one had to invest all capital
-
system of insurance developed
-
bill of exchange developed- merchant deposited money with banker in his home city, banker
issued bill of exchange, which the merchant exchanged for cash in a distant city
-
use of money undermined serfdom
because feudal lords needed money to buy things, so farmers paid rent in cash
now rather than labor; most peasants became tenant farmers or hired farm
laborers
-
new middle class formed
between nobles and peasants
o
clergy despised middle class; saw
them as disruptive influence beyond their control, saw usury as immoral
(especially in Christianity) so Jews became moneylenders
ROLE OF GUILDS
-
guilds- association of
merchants/artisans that cooperated to protect their own economic interests
o
merchant guilds appeared first,
then artisan guilds representing workers in one occupation
o
to prevent competition, membership
was limited and no one except guild members could work in any trade; set prices,
regulated quality of goods
o
provided social services and looked
after members
-
to become member, a child became an
apprentice to a guild master and apprentice got no wages but got house
and board
o
most apprentices became journeymen
or salaried workers
-
women often engaged in same trade
as her father/husband and sometimes became guild masters
TOWN AND CITY LIFE
-
towns/cities surrounded by high,
protective walls
-
no town had a garbage collection or
sewer system
-
filthy, smelly, noisy, crowded
Pg 204-211 (World
History Book)- High Middle Ages- Growth of Royal Power in England and France
-
feudal monarchs head of society,
but had limited power; relied on vassals for military support
o
nobles and church had as much or
more power as the monarch, had own courts, collected own taxes, fielded own
armies
-
to centralize power, monarchs set
up system of justice that undermined feudal or Church courts, organized a
government bureaucracy, developed system of taxes, built a standing army,
strengthened middle class
o
townspeople supported royal rulers
who could impose peace/unity needed for trade
STRONG MONARCHS IN ENGLAND
-
1066, Anglo-Saxon King Edward died
without heir, so council of nobles chose Edward’s brother-in-law Harold to
rule, but Duke William of Normandy also claimed English throne
o
William raised army, won backing of
pope, and sailed across English channel; at Battle of Hastings, William
and his Norman knights triumphed
§
`over next 300 years, gradual
blending of Norman French and Anglo-Saxon customs, languages, traditions
-
William granted fiefs to Church and
Norman lords (barons)but kept large amount for himself; required every
vassal to swear first allegiance to him rather than any other feudal lord
-
William had complete census taken
and put it in the Domesday Book; helped later English monarchs build
efficient system of tax collecting; William’s successors created a royal exchequer
(treasury)
-
Henry II came to power 1154
o
Broadened system of royal justice,
had to follow accepted customs in law and expanded customs, sent justices to
enforce royal laws
o
Decision of royal courts foundation
of English common law (legal system based on custom and court rulings)
that applied to all of England
o
Jury system developed (jury- group
of men sworn to speak truth)
§
Early juries determined which cases
should be brought to trail (ancestor of grand jury)
§
Later, jury evolved with twelve
neighbors of accused (ancestor of trial jury)
o
claimed right to try clergy in
royal courts; Thomas Becket, an archbishop of Canterbury, opposed and
four knights murdered him
EVOLVING TRADITIONS OF ENGLISH GOVERNMENT
-
rulers kept clashing with nobles
and Church because they tried to raise taxes or impose royal authority over
traditional feudal rights
-
Henry’s son John had
conflicts with Philip II of France, Pope Innocent III, and nobles
o
John lost war with Philip II and
had to give up English- held lands in Anjou and Normandy
o
Rejected Pope Innocent III’s
nominee for new archbishop of Canterbury, so Pope placed England under interdict
and excommunicated John
§
To save himself and crown, John had
to accept England as fief of papacy and pay yearly fee to Rome
-
John angered nobles with oppressive
taxes, so group of barons forced him to sign Magna Carta (“great
charter”) affirming long list of feudal rights
o
Protected every freeman from
arbitrary arrest, imprisonment, and etc. except by “legal judgment of his
peers or by the law of the land” (led to “due process of law”)
o
King could not raise new taxes
without first consulting his Great Council of lords and clergy
o
Magna Carta asserted that
nobles had certain rights (later extended to all English citizens)
o
Made clear that monarch had
to follow the law
-
Magna Carta caused rulers to often
call on Great Council for advice and led to development of Parliament
o
Edward I called Parliament to
approve money for wars in France and had representatives of common people join
with lords and clergy (later became known as Model Parliament because it
set up framework for England’s legislature)
§
Parliament developed two-house
body; House of Lords (with nobles and high clergy) and House of Commons (with
knights and middle-class)
§
Parliament also gained “power of
the purse” (right to approve any new taxes) and could check power of monarch
SUCCESSFUL MONARCHS IN FRANCE
-
successors of Charlemagne inherited
little power over patchwork of French territories rules by great feudal nobles
-
987, feudal nobles elected Hugh
Capet to fill throne because he was too weak to pose threat to them, but he
and his heirs slowly increased royal power, won support of Church, and added to
lands by playing rival nobles against each other
-
Philip Augustus- strengthened royal government by appointing maid middle-class officials
who owed him their loyalty to fill government positions instead of appointing
nobles, granted charters to many new towns, organized standing army, introduced
new national tax, quadrupled land holdings, and was most powerful ruler in
Europe before his death
-
Louis IX- declared saint within 30 years of death, deeply religious, sent out
roving officials to check on local officials, expanded royal courts, outlawed
private wars, ended serfdom
o
Personal prestige created strong
nationalism among subjects
o
Centralized monarchy
-
Philip IV- tried to tax clergy and that led to clash with Pope Boniface VIII;
Philip IV sent troops to seize Boniface, Boniface badly beaten but escaped and
died; after, a Frenchman elected pope, moved papal court to Avignon
o
Rallied support by setting up
Estates general
Pg 212-214 (World History Book)- The Holy Roman Empire and The Church
-
after Charlemagne’s death,
kingdom dissolved into number of separate states; Duke Otto I of Saxony
was king of Germany
o
Otto I worked closely with church,
appointed bishops to top government jobs, took army to Italy to help pope defeat
rebels, and was crowned emperor by pope (“Holy Roman Empire”)
o
German emperors claimed authority
over much central and eastern Europe but real rulers were emperor’s vassals
(nobles and church officials), and emperors needed to control vassals (they
never did)
-
Gregory VII tried to make church independent of secular rulers, so he banned lay
investiture (when an emperor or another lay person presented bishop with
ring and staff that symbolized their office); claimed only pope had right to
install bishops
o
Henry IV (Holy Roman Emperor) claimed that bishops held lands as royal fiefs and
since he was overlord, he felt entitled to give them symbols of office
o
Feud heated up and German princes
saw chance to undermine Henry by supporting pope; Gregory VII excommunicated
Henry IV and was headed to crown new emperor, but Henry presented himself as
repentant sinner and Gregory had to life excommunication order; Henry got
revenge later when he led army to Rome and forced Pope into exile
o
‘finally in Concordat of Worms
years later, it was agreed that Church had sole power to elect and invest
bishops but emperor had right to invest them with fiefs
STRUGGLE FOR ITALY
-
Frederick I
(“Barbarossa”) fought to bring cities of northern Italy under his control; cities joined
forces with pope in Lombard League and defeated Barbarossa’s armies
-
Barbarossa managed to arrange
marriage between his son Henry and Constance (heiress to Sicily and southern
Italy); they son, Frederick II, became Holy Roman Emperor and clashed
with several popes, spent little time in Germany, tried (and failed) to subdue
cities in northern Italy
o
As Frederick was in Italy, German
nobles more independent; Holy Roman Empire fragmented; Germany would not be
unified for 600 years
o
Popes in Southern Italy and Sicily
turned to French to overthrow Frederick’s heirs and left region in ruins
HEIGHT OF CHURCH POWER
-
Pope Innocent III claimed supremacy over all other rulers
o
Clashed with powerful rulers and
most often won
o
Placed King John of England’s
kingdom under interdict after John appointed archbishop of Canterbury without
pope’s permission
o
Placed France under interdict when
Philip II tried to annul his marriage
o
Launched crusade against
Albigensian in South France because they wanted to purify and return to simple
ways of early Christianity; tens of thousands slaughtered in Albigensian Crusade
o
After Innocent’s death, popes
continued pressing claim to supremacy
Pg
215-219 (World History Book)- Europeans Look Outward
THE WORLD IN 1050
-
Islam united new civilizations from
Spain to India; Muslim traders and scholars spread goods and ideas further
-
India full of thriving cities,
invented number systems Arabs adapted
-
China had strong central
government, culture flourished, new inventions
-
Soninke people of Western Africa
were building empire of Ghana, where merchants traded
-
Mayans and Native Americans built
empires and cities, creating great artworks
-
Byzantine empire prosperous,
scholars studied Greek and Roman writings, at Constantinople, merchants and
traders mingled
o
In 1050s, Seljuk Turks invaded and
overran Byzantine empire as well as extended power over Palestine to the Holy
Land and attacked Christians
o
Pope Innocent IV tried sending
diplomatic mission to Mongol khan to half invasion of Christian lands but failed
§
Giovanni da Pian del Carpini led
mission and later wrote book about Mongols from his experiences
THE CRUSADES
-
Byzantine Emperor Alexius I
asked Pope Urban II fir Christian knights to help fight Turks; at Council
of Clermont, Urban incited bishops and nobles (pope hoped to heal schism
between Catholic and orthodox churches)
o
Motives: religious zeal, greed
(many hoped to win wealth and land), to escape troubles at home, for adventure
-
First Crusade- Christians captured
Jerusalem and massacred Muslims and Hews of city; crusaders divided captured
lands into four states, but Muslims tried to destroy Christian kingdoms,
launching more crusades
o
1187- Jerusalem fell to Muslim
leader Salah al-din (Saladin), and in Third Crusade, Europeans tried to
take city back; after negotiations, Saladin opened city to Christian pilgrims
-
Europeans kept mounting crusades
trying to take Muslim lands especially in North Africa but failed
-
Fourth Crusade- Christians helped
Venetian merchants defeat Byzantine rivals
-
By 1291, Muslims recaptured last
Christian outpost, the city of Acre and massacred Christians there
EFFECTS OF CRUSADES ON EUROPE
-
anti-Semitism and massacre of entire communities of Jews
-
increased trade
o
large fleets built to carry crusaders to Holy Land later
carried trade with Middle East
-
encouraged money economy because finance journey to Holy
land, nobles needed money; allowed peasants to pay rent in money, undermining
serfdom
-
increased power of monarchs who won right to levy
(collect) taxes to finance crusades; some monarchs (ex. Louis IX) led crusades
and increased prestige
-
increased papal power because of enthusiasm for crusades but
didn’t heal schism
-
led Christians to wider worldview; some began visiting
far-off places
o
ex. Marco Polo visited China and brought back tales of
government-run main service and black stones (coal) burnt for heat
RECONQUISTA IN SPAIN
-
crusading spirit continued even after Acre, especially in
Spain (Muslims conquered most of Spain in 700s) and Christian kingdoms in north
sought to drive Muslims out (known as Reconquista)
o
first recaptured Toledo, then steadily pushed southward until
they controlled entire Iberian Peninsula except Granada (although Muslim
influence remained strong in Spain)
o
after Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of
Aragon, the two combined forces and finally took Granada
§
tried to impose unity on Spain
§
under Muslims, Spain enjoyed religious toleration, but
Isabella (with support of Inquisition) launched crusade against
Jews and Muslims and burned people who refused to convert
Pg 212-215 (Humanities Book)- The
Romanesque Style
-
after Carolingian period as warfare decreased, pilgrimages
became popular and crusades were fought to free holy places of Middle East from
Muslims so pilgrims could journey to Jerusalem
o
monks built/maintained pilgrimage churches and hostels on
major pilgrimage routes
o
style of building 1000-1200 called Romanesque because
it looked more Roman than earlier medieval architecture; two most striking
characteristics:
1.
use of heavy stone arches
2.
generous exterior decoration, mainly sculpture
3.
two obvious advantages of style: a) use of heavy stone and
masonry walls permitted larger, more spacious interiors and b) heavy walls could
support stone arches which in turn permitted fireproof stone and masonry roofs
(basilica-style churches with wooden truses and wooden roofs notoriously
susceptible to fire)
o
although great regional variation, Romanesque lines are
distinct (ex. space articulated so that large numbers of people could move
freely throughout building; floor plan of Church of Saint Sermin in Toulose
allows for aisle parallel to nave to go completely around church)
o
lack of interior light because of thick, solid walls drove
artists outside to decorate portal (doorway), trumeau (central
supporting post of portal), and tympanum (half-moon-shaped space over
portal); archivolts (outer arches) also decorated with signs of zodiac
and symbolic seasons of year, a reminder that Gospel is to be preached "in
season and out" (purely decorative archivolts perhaps derived from Islamic
sources)
-
Romanesque style was European phenomenon and summed up much
of European culture between end of Carolingian and beginning of Gothic style
o
Roots of style were in Benedictine tradition of service,
scholarship, solidity, and manifest period's concern with travel and expansion
o
Period after Charlemagne and before primacy of cities was
sometimes called Benedictine Age
Basilica
-
ambulatory- walkway around church so people do
not interrupt monks' services
-
chapel- for individual praying, artifacts
-
choir middle of church where monks sang
-
apse- for focusing on single icon or
artifact
-
not many windows, less light
- 
Rib
Vault-
Barrel
Vault
Groin
Vault
Portal
Pg
221-232 (humanities textbook)
SIGNIFICANCE
OF PARIS
-
enter of Western
civilization 1150-1300 because it was royal seat and strong mercantile center;
its trade fair was famous, it gave birth to Gothic architecture and
scholasticism and universities, three creations that sprang from desire to
articulate all knowledge systematically
-
culture of Middle
Ages from the twin sources of all western high culture:
1.
humane learning of
from Greece and Rome
2.
accepted faith of
the West (with origin in Judeo-Christian scripture and religious worldview)
-
distinct
expression of culture in and around Medieval Paris made possible by:
o
renewed interest
in learning, fueled by discovery of lost texts from Classical world (especially
Aristotle) which came to west via Muslim world
o
weakening of
feudal society by cosmopolitanism created by ill-fated Crusades and increased
pilgrimages
o
religious reforms
that breathed life into church
THE
GOTHIC STYLE
Suger's
Building Program for Saint Denis
-
Benediction
Abbey of Saint Denis
focal point for French patriotism
-
Built in
Carolingian times, housed relics of Saint Denis, a martyr who evangelized Paris
before his martyrdom; crypt of church served as burial place for Frankish kings
and nobles (although it lacked tomb of Charlemagne)
-
Perlerinage
de Charlemagne (which
claimed that relics of Passion housed at abbey had been brought personally by
Charlemagne when he returned from a pilgrimage to Holy Land) and Pseudo-Torpin (which has Charlemagne returning to Abbey of Saint
Denis after Spanish campaign and proclaiming all France under protection and
tutelage of saint) are legends widely believed during Middle Ages and there is
evidence that Suger accepted them as fact
o
Created story
about abbey that made it major Christian shrine worth of Paris
-
people visited
Saint Denis because of abbey's relics or because of lendit (trade fair
held near precincts of abbey)
-
Suger decided to
build new church to accommodate pilgrims; wanted it to be as lavish and
brilliant as Hagia Sophia and as loyal to will of God as Tempe of Solomon in
Bible
o
First had to tear
down old parts of church and replace them; entrance was given three portals to
accommodate elaborate processions of Medieval liturgy, narthex rebuilt and
extended
o
New choir was
surrounded by double ambulatory- outer ambulatory had seven chapels with two
windows each
o
Nave never
completed but evidence suggests that it would have had characteristics similar
to choir: crossed rib vaults with stained glass windows
o
Cathedrals of
Senlis and Noyons and Notre Dame inspired by Saint Denis and an explosion of
cathedral building radiated from Paris Ile de Paris)
o
Gothic-
used in 17th century meaning "barbarous" or
"rude" to distinguish buildings not following Classical models of
Greece and Rome; lost its negative meaning only during Medieval period
o
Gothic style
seemed to express desire for verticality but Romanesque architects a generation
before Suger also attempted same verticality only to be stopped not by lack of
desire but by insufficient technical means; pointed arch (which distributed
weight more thoroughly in downward direction, lessening need for massive
interior piers), buttresses (which absorbed some downward thrust), and heavy
decorative devices such as spires lessened thickness, weight, and mass of walls
of Gothic cathedrals and made walls more available as framing devices for
windows
§
Luminosity, not
verticality, was basic characteristic of Gothic architecture
MYSTICISM
OF LIGHT
-
Abbot Suger wrote
two booklets about his stewardship of abbey and his ideas about
building/decorating of abbey church and, more importantly, a theology of beauty
heavily influenced by Dionysus of Areopagite (aka "Pseudo Dionysus),
a fifth century monk
o
In doctrine of
Pseudo-Dionysus, everything partakes of the essence of God; there is hierarchy
of existence that ranges from inert mineral to pure light, which is God, and as
light becomes more pure (as one ascend hierarch) one gets closer to pure light
o
Suger believed
that when he finished his nave with glass windows, he would have structure
pervaded by lux nova (new light); he fully exploited stained glass by
encouraging an architecture that put it to its most advantageous employment and
providing theory to justify its use
-
Cathedral of
Chartres- rebuilt
after fire in 1194 with more than 173 windows (glass fixed together by leading
individual pieces)
o
Sections of glass
set into stone frames (mullions)
o
Stained glass
windows and Byzantine mosaics derived from some of same sources but perception
of light in two art forms radically different- in mosaics, light refracted off
opaque surface while the stained-glass window was medium through which light was
seen directly
o
Stained-glass
windows- "Bible of the Poor"
o
You can only read
the meaning of the window by looking at it from the inside with an exterior
light source- the sun- illuminating it (analogy- sun=God)
o
Notre
Dame de Belle Verriere ("Our Lady of the Beautiful Window) one of the most famous works at Chartres- shows virgin
enthroned (Mary as Seat of Wisdom) with Christ child surrounded by worshipping
angels bearing candles and censors; window links to exterior sculptural program
(in tympanum of portal is Madonna and Christ Child with who censer-bearing
angels)
§
Mary depicted in
glass here would call to mind an exemplum ("moral example")
used in theology- Christ was born of a virgin; he passed through her body as
light passes through window, completely intact without changing the glass
-
church authorities
felt need to build place suitable for divine worship and also to utilize every
opportunity to each-edify worshippers
o
ex. Gothic
gargoyles served to funnel rainwater off roofs while signifying that evil flees
church
MANY
MEANINGS OF THE GOTHIC CATHEDRAL
-
served as
preeminent building in Episcopal towns of Ile de France
-
with exception of
Saint Denis, cathedrals were town buildings that served vital social and
economic functions in medieval society; analogous to courthouse square of
America with better stores and "uptown" churches clustered around it
-
cathedral shaped
individual life and social life in town (schooling, hospitals, orphanage
provided by church) through decisions by the cathedral staff (aka chapter)
o
life regulated by horarium
of cathedral (daily schedule in monastery or church community)
o
citizens could sue
and be sued in church courts
-
cathedrals
extremely expensive to build
o
patrons donated
windows- rose window was gift of a royal family (at Chartres), lancet windows
given by nobility or higher clergy, many various windows donated by men of
various craft and guilds in the town with "signature frame" at bottom
-
motivation for
building cathedral- theological vision, religious devotion, civic pride,
socioeconomic interest
-
construction of
cathedral dependent on chapter (who decided to build cathedral, raise money, and
hired master builder-architect)
o
master builder
responsible for hiring various master craftsmen, designing building, creating
decorative scheme approved by church officials
o
workshop set up
next to proposed site with each master hiring from local population, but mostly
it was a migratory group who worked
-
names of many
master builders (including builder of Chartres) lost, but others survived such
as the book of Villard de Honnecourt, an architect from northern France
o
said that he would
teach willing apprentice many skills
o
had sketches of
religious models for stone carvers, of animal and builds that caught his eye,
etc.
o
often compared to
da Vinci's notebooks (although not as complete)
-
cathedrals mean to
be "gateway to heaven"
-
pilgrimage
church- place people
make pilgrimage to but is not a cathedral
o
Santiago de
Compostela most
popular pilgrimage site because it has remains of Saint Joseph
o
Gothic churches
have many stained glass windows- Romanesque not so many
Pf
233-237 (humanities book)- Scholasticism
RISE
OF UNIVERSITIES
-
contemporary
institutions with roots in Middle Ages: trial by jury, constitutional monarchy,
and universities
-
some of most
prestigious centers of European learning today founded during Middle Ages (ex.
Oxford, Cambridge)
o
similarities with
liberal arts curriculum, degrees from baccalaureate through master's to
doctorate, high cost of textbooks, lack of jobs after graduation
o
differences-
coeducation, football games, degrees in business or agriculture
-
universities
developed in 12th and 13th centuries with emergence of
city life; often in earlier medieval period, schools most often associated with
monasteries usually situated in rural areas but as cities few more important,
schools developed at urban monasteries or under aegis of bishops
o
Episcopal/cathedral
school reflected importance of towns and increased power of bishops
o
In Italy, where
town life had been strong throughout Middle Ages and feudalism never took hold,
there was tradition of schools controlled by laity
-
factors
contributing to rapid rise of formal education institutions in 12th
century-
1.
increased
complexity of urban life that created demand for an educated class who could
join ranks of administrators and bureaucrats
a.
urban schools
designed to produce educated class to give support to socioeconomic structures
of society
2.
discovery and
publication of texts from ancient world , especially the lost books of Aristotle
that came to West through Muslim sources in Spain
3.
closer
relationship between Christian and Arabic scholars led to lots of scientific and
mathematical material coming into Europe
4.
refinement of dialectics
("art of conversation"- techniques used to come to logical conclusions
based on a rigorous style of reasoning by individuals like Peter Abelard and
Peter Lombard)
a.
theologians and
philosophers began applying principles of logic to study of philosophy and
theology
b.
Abelard wrote Sic
at Non combining conflicting opinions concerning theological matters with
contradictory passages from Bible and Church Fathers, then attempted to
reconcile apparent divergences
c.
Eventually was
refined and stylized and led to scholasticism
d.
Professors of
theology had to 1. explain text of scriptures, 2. preach, and 3. dispute
(present Christian doctrines in logical form)
e.
Greatest weakness
was temptation to turn logical process into an end in itself (trying to dazzle
people with sheer logic)
-
most famous
university during Middle Ages was University of Paris because of fame of
teachers who came to instruct and because Paris had established centers of
learning with vast reputation
o
university at
Paris developed in late 12th century with magistri
("teachers"; "masters") of city forming universitas
(guild or corporation)
§
in Paris, masters
formed universitas to exercise "quality control" over teaching
profession and students entrusted to them
§
universitas could
eventually issue stipulations for conduct of both masters and students, teaching
certificates enabling student to enter ranks of masters after completion of
courses and exams
·
after graduation,
student could go on to training in law, theology, or medicine, making him a
doctor in his field
-
1210- masters and
students of art split with theologians and moved their facility to the Left Bank
of the Seine where they settled in area intersected by rue du Fouarre now called
Latin Quarter
-
Paris was
intellectual center of Europe and students came from all over Europe to study
there
o
Students organized
into nations by place of national origin (four recognized- French,
Picard, Norman, and Anglo-German)
-
daily schedule
rigorous; lectures consisted of detailed commentary on books and because books
were expensive, emphasis on note taking and copying so student would build up
own collection of books
o
examinations in
from of panel of masters
o
student poetry
depicts wine, women, song, sharp satires at expense of professors or poor
accommodations, etc.
-
students invented Saint
Golias, patron saint of wandering scholars
o
Goliardic
verses written in his
honor
§
In 1930s, Carl
Orff set some poems found in Bavarian monastery to music under title Carmina
Burana
-
most women did not
attend universities because medieval customs sheltered women, so they were
educated privately or within convent; also, university life tried to church and
(except at Bologna), masters were clerics; furthermore, most students depended
on ecclesiastical benefices to support them
Pg
237-241 (humanities book)
FRANCIS
OF ASSISI
-
born Giovanni
Bernadone, renamed "Francesco"
-
joined volunteer
militia to do battle against city of Perugia but was captured and put into
solitary confinement until ransom could be found after which he dropped out of
society and began life of prayer and self-denial
-
concluded that
life of perfect freedom demanded total poverty
-
altered medieval
culture profoundly:
1.
notion of medicant
("begging") brotherhood that was mobile and capable of preaching in
newly emerging cities of Europe (to replace land-bound, rural monasteries)
2.
believed that
Gospels should be followed literally and identified with humanity of Christ so
much that his own body bore crucifixion marks of Christ (stigmata)-
emphasis on Christ's humanities led to religious art to be more realistic and
vivid
3.
attitude toward
religious faith powerfully affirmative, praised goodness of creation (some
scholars argued that Franciscan vision was remote cause of Renaissance
preoccupation with natural world)
-
Berlingheri
altarpiece in
Franciscan church at Pescia one of earlier depictions of the saint
o
tributes to saint
and also reminded viewers of incidents in saint's life
-
early part of
thirteen century saw rise in intellectualism of schools and affective emotional
religion that synthesized into the Commedia of Dante Alighieri
THOMAS
AQUINAS
-
Golden Age of
University of Paris was 13th century
-
Thomas Aquinas
most famous and influential of Parisian masters of 13th century- born
of noble parentage in southern Italy, joined Preaching Friars of Saint Dominic
-
Wrote Summa
Theologica to answer how one harmonizes things part of human learning
(reason) with supernatural truths revealed by God in the Bible and through
church
o
at the time, two
opposed opinions-
1.
fideism-
religious faith absolute and indifferent to efforts of human reason
2.
rationalism-
everything including revelation must meet test of human scrutiny
-
Aquinas wanted to
demonstrate that liberal arts and mysteries revealed by God could be brought
into intellectual harmony based on single criterion of truth
o
Said that the mind
judges something to be true when it has seen enough evidence that it is true and
that there was sufficient amount of observable evidence to conclude existence of
God
o
Also said that
reason alone could not probe mysteries of God revealed in the bible and that
assent not based on evidence but on authority of God who reveals it to us (if we
could prove mysteries of faith, no reason for faith)
o
Concluded that
there is relationship between reason and faith: philosophy perfects human
capacity to know, revelation offers salvation and eternal life
o
no stylistic
adornment to relieve philosophical and rational discourse and makes clear that
philosophical and theological reasoning is difficult
-
was also a mystic
-
works influenced
by Aristotle
o
Arab and Jewish
thinks (like Moses of Maimonides) also tried to bridge Greek though and their
own faith (Maimonides wrote Guide for the
Perplexed to demonstrate compatibility of Hebrew scriptures with thoughts of
Aristotle)
-
worldview was
hierarchical (everything has its place in universe and that place is determined
in relation to God)
o
in Middle Ages
view, people higher up in the hierarchy are essentially better than the person
below
-
thought himself as
a commenter on the Bible and lectured on it- was charged by university to three
tasks:
1.
reading (of the
bible)
2.
disputing (using
logic/argument to solve theological problems)
3.
preaching
